Journal Description
Water
Water
is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the International Conference on Flood Management (ICFM) and Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) and Japanese Society of Physical Hydrology (JSPH) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Geography, Planning and Development)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards and Hydrobiology.
Impact Factor:
3.4 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.5 (2022)
Latest Articles
A Comparative Study of Carbon Emissions from Industrial and Domestic Wastewater Treatment Plants under the Background of Carbon Neutralization
Water 2024, 16(12), 1652; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121652 (registering DOI) - 9 Jun 2024
Abstract
This paper studied the characteristics of the carbon emission of an industrial wastewater treatment plant (IWWTP) and a domestic WWTP (DWWTP) located in a high-tech industrial park of Shaanxi Province, China. The results showed that the total carbon emissions of the IWWTP and
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This paper studied the characteristics of the carbon emission of an industrial wastewater treatment plant (IWWTP) and a domestic WWTP (DWWTP) located in a high-tech industrial park of Shaanxi Province, China. The results showed that the total carbon emissions of the IWWTP and DWWTP were 10.13 kg/t and 1.84 kg/t in 2020, respectively. Indirect carbon emissions play a dominant role in the total carbon emission of the IWWTP, which accounts for about 97.6% of the total amount. The direct carbon emissions of greenhouse gases (e.g., CH4, N2O) account for about 62% of the total carbon emissions in the DWWTP, followed by the indirect carbon emissions generated by electricity consumption (31.06%) and chemical consumption (6.94%). Additionally, the centralized recycling and re-utilization of the wastewater could achieve 1.06 kg/t and 1.16 kg/t of carbon emission reduction in the IWWTP and DWWTP, respectively, while the carbon emissions of the DWWTP are inversely proportional to the treatment capacity. Therefore, it is of great value to collect and utilize intensively the recycled water to achieve the goal of regional carbon emission reduction and carbon neutralization of WWTPs in industrial parks.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Desalination and Waste/Water Treatment)
Open AccessArticle
Assessment of Drinking Water Quality in Northern Ethiopia Rural Area: A Case Study of Farta District, South Gondar Zone
by
Mesenbet Fentie, Eshetu Assefa, Dagnachew Aklog, Adugnaw Tadesse and Eshetu Janka
Water 2024, 16(12), 1651; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121651 (registering DOI) - 9 Jun 2024
Abstract
Access to safe drinking water remains a fundamental issue in rural areas of Ethiopia. This study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of drinking water at protected sources in the Farta district, South Gondar Zone, Ethiopia. The study covered 16 rural
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Access to safe drinking water remains a fundamental issue in rural areas of Ethiopia. This study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of drinking water at protected sources in the Farta district, South Gondar Zone, Ethiopia. The study covered 16 rural Kebeles and was conducted on 75 protected dug wells with hand pumps (HDWs) and 17 protected springs (PSs). Data were collected during the wet and dry season, and field measurement were conducted on water samples pH, turbidity, electrical conductivity, and temperature, while laboratory analysis focused on E. coli prevalence. Additionally, sanitary risk assessment was also performed. The result showed that, the pH values ranged from 5.4 to 8.1, turbidity levels varied between 0 to 100 nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU), electric conductivity ranged from 62 to 584 µS/cm, and temperature ranged from 12.1 to 27 °C. Among all the samples, 39.1% had a pH below the minimum standard value of 6.5, close to 50.5% did not meet the turbidity requirement (5NTU), and all samples were safe against electric conductivity levels. The E. coli contamination was widespread, and only a small percentage of water sources, such as 21.7% HDWs, 6.7% PSs during dry season, and 13% HDWs during wet season were negative to E. coli detection. A significant proportion of water sources, such as 18% HDWs and 13% PSs during dry season, as well as 44.9% HDWs and 46.7% PSs during wet season, fell into the high microbial health risk category. Sanitary inspections revealed that only 16.7% of water sources were classified as low sanitary risk. This study revealed that majority of water sources were unfit to drinking and may endanger the public health. To ensure safe water availability frequent cleaning and disinfection of water sources, implementation of household water treatment, and improvement of WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) infrastructure is needed.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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Open AccessArticle
A Framework to Evaluate Groundwater Quality and the Relationship between Rock Weathering and Groundwater Hydrogeochemistry in the Tropical Zone: A Case Study of Coastal Aquifer Arroyo Grande, in the Caribbean Region of Colombia
by
Carlos Arroyo-Figueroa, Dayana Carolina Chalá, Guillermo Gutiérrez-Ribon and Edgar Quiñones-Bolaños
Water 2024, 16(12), 1650; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121650 (registering DOI) - 9 Jun 2024
Abstract
Hydrochemical analysis is crucial for understanding soil and water composition dynamics in coastal aquifers. This study presents a novel framework for the comprehensive assessment of groundwater quality, integrating multivariate analysis and hydrochemical techniques. It comprises seven stages aimed at characterizing physicochemical properties, identifying
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Hydrochemical analysis is crucial for understanding soil and water composition dynamics in coastal aquifers. This study presents a novel framework for the comprehensive assessment of groundwater quality, integrating multivariate analysis and hydrochemical techniques. It comprises seven stages aimed at characterizing physicochemical properties, identifying water constituents, elucidating dominant mechanisms in water composition, evaluating ion exchange processes, analyzing spatial distribution of components, identifying impacting processes, and assessing drinking water quality. The framework was applied to the coastal unconfined Arroyo Grande aquifer in Cartagena, Colombia. Fifteen points were sampled, assessing physicochemical parameters such as total hardness, alkalinity, pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, anions, cations, among others. Findings reveal the presence of dominant anions including bicarbonate, chloride, and sulfate, with relevant variations observed between the dry and wet season, with manganese and iron surpassing WHO drinking water standards. The prevalence of these constituents has been attributed to mineral dissolution, ion exchange, salinization due to seawater intrusion, and anthropogenic contamination. Over 50% of samples in both seasons fail to meet freshwater drinking standards due to elevated dissolved mineral concentrations in groundwater. These findings provide insights for sustainable management and mitigation strategies, and the systematic approach enables researchers to identify key factors influencing water composition.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemistry of Water and Sediment III)
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Open AccessArticle
Carcinogenic and Non-Carcinogenic Health Risk Evaluation of Heavy Metals in Water Sources of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer in the El-Farafra Oasis (Egypt)
by
Abdullah A. Saber, Mahmood Fayz M. Al-Mashhadany, Aadil Hamid, Jacopo Gabrieli, Klement Tockner, Sarah S. A. Alsaif, Ali A. M. Al-Marakeby, Stefano Segadelli, Marco Cantonati and Sami Ullah Bhat
Water 2024, 16(12), 1649; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121649 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
Expanding anthropogenic activities, globally and in Egypt, have increased concentrations of heavy metals in surface and ground waters. Contamination of drinking water may threaten public health. In the present study, the concentrations of 10 heavy metals were analyzed from natural springs (6) and
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Expanding anthropogenic activities, globally and in Egypt, have increased concentrations of heavy metals in surface and ground waters. Contamination of drinking water may threaten public health. In the present study, the concentrations of 10 heavy metals were analyzed from natural springs (6) and drilled wells (10) in the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer of the El-Farafra Oasis and the White Desert National Park, Egypt. The average concentrations of heavy metals were in most cases below critical values of the WHO drinking water standard, except for Fe and Mn (average values were 495 and 107 µg.L−1, respectively). There is a surface circulation that develops within limestone (Post-Nubian Aquifer System—PNAS) and feeds the springs, while the water present in the wells (at least for the deeper ones) comes from the ferruginous sandstone (Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System—NSAS). This double circulation could account for the differences in the EC and TDS values (typical of a circulation in limestone-type aquifers for springs) and the Fe and Mn enrichment coming from the ferruginous sandstone of the NSAS. The average chronic daily intake (CDI) values for heavy metals in the study area are listed in decreasing order in the following: Fe > Mn > Zn > Co > Ni > Cr > As > Pb > Co > Cd. The total hazard quotient (HQtotal = HQoral + HQdermal) and Hazard Index (HI) values calculated for different heavy metals were well below the acceptable limit, indicating no significant non-carcinogenic health risks to the residents of both areas via oral and dermal absorption of drinking water. Furthermore, the results obtained for the total risk to human health showed that oral ingestion is the major pathway. Carcinogenic risk analysis indicated that the Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) values for Pb, Cd, Ni, and Cr were well below the acceptable limits.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water and One Health)
Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Study on the Coefficient of Apparent Shear Stress along Lines Dividing a Compound Cross-Section
by
Yindi Zhao, Dong Chen, Jinghong Qin, Lei Wang and You Luo
Water 2024, 16(12), 1648; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121648 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
A compound channel’s discharge capacity and boundary shear force can be predicted as a sum of the discharge capacity of different sub-regions once the apparent shear stress of the dividing line is reasonably quantified. The apparent shear stress was usually expressed as a
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A compound channel’s discharge capacity and boundary shear force can be predicted as a sum of the discharge capacity of different sub-regions once the apparent shear stress of the dividing line is reasonably quantified. The apparent shear stress was usually expressed as a coefficient multiplied by the difference between two squared velocities of two adjacent regions. This study investigated the range of the coefficient values and their influencing factors. Firstly, the optimal values of the coefficient were obtained based on experimental data. Then, comparisons between the optimal values and several parameters used in quantifying the apparent shear stress were conducted. The results show that the coefficient is mainly related to a morphological parameter of the floodplain and the ratio of resistance coefficients between the floodplain and the main channel. An empirical formula to calculate the coefficient was developed and introduced to calculate the flow discharge and boundary shear stress. Experimental data, including 142 sets of test data of symmetric-floodplain cases and 104 sets of one-floodplain cases, have been used to examine the prediction accuracy of discharges and boundary shear stress. For all these tests, the ranges of water depth of the main channel and the total width of the compound cross-section are about 0.05~0.30 m and 0.3~10 m, respectively; the Q range and the range of Froude numbers of the main channel flow are about 0.0033~1.11 m3/s and 0.3~2.3, respectively. Comparison with other methods and experimental data from both rigid and erodible compound channels indicated that the proposed method not only provided acceptable accuracy for the computation of discharge capacity and boundary shear stress of compound channels in labs but also gave insights for calculating discharge capacity in natural compound channels.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydraulic and Water Resources Research (2nd Edition))
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Open AccessArticle
Ship-Forced Sediment Transport: A New Model for Propeller Jet Flow
by
Carola Colangeli, Georgios Leftheriotis, Athanassios Dimas and Maurizio Brocchini
Water 2024, 16(12), 1647; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121647 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
A numerical model is presented for ship-induced sediment transport, focusing on the fundamental role of propeller jet flow. The new module has been implemented in the open-source numerical model FUNWAVE in order to reproduce the effect of the propeller on sediment transport. Numerical
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A numerical model is presented for ship-induced sediment transport, focusing on the fundamental role of propeller jet flow. The new module has been implemented in the open-source numerical model FUNWAVE in order to reproduce the effect of the propeller on sediment transport. Numerical simulations have been performed for both stationary and moving vessel cases, as well as for different values of propeller revolution speed. Numerical results are presented for the propeller-induced velocity field and the resulting morphological evolution of the seabed. Qualitative similarities are observed between the numerical results and literature experimental findings, showing the ability of the model to mimic complex morphodynamic processes induced by ship propellers. Compared to stationary vessel cases, smaller scour depths are generated in moving vessel cases. It is concluded that the effect of the propeller provides a major contribution to the mobilization and suspension of seabed sediment, and it should not be neglected in numerical models for ship-induced sediment transport.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Erosion and Sediment Transport)
Open AccessArticle
Modeling and Data Mining Analysis for Long-Term Temperature-Stress-Strain Monitoring Data of a Concrete Gravity Dam
by
Tao Zhou, Ning Ma, Xiaojun Su, Zhigang Wu, Wen Zhong and Ye Zhang
Water 2024, 16(12), 1646; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121646 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
The safety condition of concrete gravity dams is influenced by multiple factors, and assessing their safety solely based on a single factor is difficult to comprehensively evaluate. Therefore, this paper proposes a comprehensive modeling and analysis approach to assess dam safety by considering
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The safety condition of concrete gravity dams is influenced by multiple factors, and assessing their safety solely based on a single factor is difficult to comprehensively evaluate. Therefore, this paper proposes a comprehensive modeling and analysis approach to assess dam safety by considering long-term temperature, stress, and strain monitoring data of actual concrete gravity dams. Firstly, the K-means clustering algorithm is utilized to classify the data. Then, the study area of the dam is meshed and three indicator evaluation values for all the elements are calculated. The other elements’ evaluation values can be obtained by the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) method. Finally, the analytic hierarchy process extended by the D numbers preference relation (D-AHP) method is applied to compute the weights of temperature, stress, and strain and evaluate the dam’s safety comprehensively. The effectiveness of this method is validated through application to specific engineering cases. The results demonstrate that compared to assessing methods considering only single factors, the comprehensive evaluation method proposed in this paper can more comprehensively and accurately reflect the actual safety condition of concrete gravity dams, providing important references for engineering decision-making.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Methods and Technologies of Hydraulic Engineering Safety Assessment)
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Open AccessArticle
Effect of Carbon Source on Endogenous Partial Denitrification Process: Characteristics of Intracellular Carbon Transformation and Nitrite Accumulation
by
Han Xiang, Juan Li, Zhipeng You, Yanling Qiu, Juan Feng, Ji Zhao, Guangyu Chu and Xiaoxia Wang
Water 2024, 16(12), 1645; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121645 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
This study focused on the start-up and operating characteristics of the endogenous partial denitrification (EPD) process with different carbon sources. Two sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) with sodium acetate (SBR1#) and glucose (SBR2#) as carbon sources were operated under anaerobic/oxic
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This study focused on the start-up and operating characteristics of the endogenous partial denitrification (EPD) process with different carbon sources. Two sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) with sodium acetate (SBR1#) and glucose (SBR2#) as carbon sources were operated under anaerobic/oxic (A/O) and anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (A/A/O) modes successively for 240 d. The results showed that COD removal efficiency reached 85% and effluent COD concentrations were below 35 mg/L in both SBRs. The difference was that faster absorption and transformation of sodium acetate was achieved compared to glucose (COD removal rate (CRR) was 7.54 > 2.22 mgCOD/(L·min) in SBR1# compared to SBR2#). EPD could be started up with sodium acetate and glucose as carbon sources, respectively, and desirable high nitrite accumulations were both obtained at influent NO3−−N (NO3−-Ninf) increased from 20 to 40 mg/L with nitrate-to-nitrite transformation ratio (NTR) and specific NO3−-N deduction rate (rNa) of 88.4~90% and 2.41~2.38 mgN/(gVSS·h), respectively. However, at NO3−-N of 50~60 mg/L, both the NTR and rNa in SBR1# were higher compared to SBR2# (86.5% > 83.9% and 1.58 > 1.20 mgN/(gVSS·h), respectively). Hereafter, when NO3−-N was increased by 70~90 mg/L, lower NTR and rNa were observed in SBR1# than in SBR2# (72% and 78%, 1.16 and 1.32 mgN/(gVSS·h), respectively). Additionally, similar internal carbon transformations were observed to drive EPD for NO2−−N accumulation, especially for higher and faster carbon transformation with sodium acetate as carbon source compared to glucose. However, precise control of anoxic time as the peak point of nitrite (TNi,max) was still the key to achieve high NO2−−N accumulation.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Wastewater Treatment Process and Nutrient Recovery)
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Open AccessArticle
Experimental Study on the Combined Effect of Electromagnetic and Electrochemical Processes on Descaling and Anticorrosion
by
Saiwei Zhang, Dongqiang Wang, Gangsheng Li, Xuewu Dong and Haiqin Jiang
Water 2024, 16(12), 1644; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121644 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
In this study, a circulating water experimental system was constructed to investigate the scale inhibition, scale removal, corrosion inhibition, and disinfection effects of industrial circulating water under the combined action of electromagnetic and electrochemical fields. The influence of these effects on water quality
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In this study, a circulating water experimental system was constructed to investigate the scale inhibition, scale removal, corrosion inhibition, and disinfection effects of industrial circulating water under the combined action of electromagnetic and electrochemical fields. The influence of these effects on water quality parameters and their scale inhibition and corrosion inhibition effects on hanging plate experiments were examined. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of scale samples were conducted using XRD (X-ray diffraction) and SEM (scanning electron microscopy), along with the evaluation of changes in water quality parameters (such as conductivity, hardness, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), turbidity, iron ions, and chloride ions) before and after the experiments. The results showed that after 360 h of circulation experiment, at a water temperature of 30 °C, electromagnetic field frequency of 1 kHz, electrochemical scale removal device voltage of 24 V, current of 10 A, and water flow rate of 0.6 m/s, the transformation of calcite to aragonite in CaCO3 scale samples occurred, with a 76.6% increase in aragonite content. Moreover, the conductivity decreased by 11.6%, hardness decreased by 42.0%, COD decreased by 59.7%, turbidity decreased by 48.1%, and chloride and iron ion concentrations decreased by 36.6% and 63.1%, respectively. The scale inhibition efficiency reached 53.8%, surpassing the effects of electromagnetic and electrochemical actions individually. These findings demonstrate that the combined action of electromagnetic and electrochemical fields can effectively enhance scale inhibition, scale removal, corrosion inhibition, and disinfection and algae removal effects.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processes for Industrial Wastewater Treatment)
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Open AccessArticle
Settlement Prediction for Concrete Face Rockfill Dams Considering Major Factor Mining Based on the HHO-VMD-LSTM-SVR Model
by
Xueqin Zheng, Taozhe Ren, Fengying Lv, Yu Wang and Sen Zheng
Water 2024, 16(12), 1643; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121643 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
Some important discoveries have been revealed in some studies, including that the settlement of concrete face rockfill dams (CFRDs) may cause cracks in the concrete face slabs, which may lead to dam collapse. Therefore, deformation behavior prediction of CFRDs is a longstanding and
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Some important discoveries have been revealed in some studies, including that the settlement of concrete face rockfill dams (CFRDs) may cause cracks in the concrete face slabs, which may lead to dam collapse. Therefore, deformation behavior prediction of CFRDs is a longstanding and emerging aspect of dam safety monitoring. This paper aims to propose a settlement prediction model for CFRDs combining the variational mode decomposition (VMD) algorithm, long short-term memory (LSTM) network, and support vector regression algorithm (SVR). Firstly, VMD is applied in the decomposition of dam settlement monitoring data to reduce its complexity. Furthermore, feature information on settlement time series is extracted. Secondly, the LSTM and SVR are optimized by the Harris hawks optimization (HHO) algorithm and modified least square (PLS) method to mine the major influencing factors and establish the prediction model with higher precision. Finally, the proposed model and other models are applied to predict the deformation behavior of the Yixing CFRD. Prediction results indicate that the proposed method possesses particular advantages over other models. The proposed VMD-LSTM-SVR model might help to evaluate the settlement trends and safety states of CFRDs.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing, Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning in Hydraulic Structure Safety Monitoring)
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Open AccessArticle
Variations in Greenhouse Gas Fluxes at the Water–Gas Interface in the Three Gorges Reservoir Caused by Hydrologic Management: Implications for Carbon Cycling
by
Xing Wei, Mingliang Liu, Hongzhong Pan, Huaming Yao and Yufeng Ren
Water 2024, 16(12), 1642; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121642 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
The Three Gorges Project is the largest hydraulic hub project in the world, and its hydrological management has altered the hydrological environment of the reservoir area, affecting the carbon emission and absorption of the reservoir water. In this study, representative hydrological stations in
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The Three Gorges Project is the largest hydraulic hub project in the world, and its hydrological management has altered the hydrological environment of the reservoir area, affecting the carbon emission and absorption of the reservoir water. In this study, representative hydrological stations in the Three Gorges Reservoir area were selected as research sites to monitor the CO2 and CH4 fluxes of the reservoir water and nine environmental factors during the drainage and impoundment periods in 2022. The study aimed to explore the mechanisms of hydrological management and environmental factors on greenhouse gas emissions. The results showed that the mean CO2 fluxes of the reservoir water during the drainage and impoundment periods were (103.82 ± 284.86) mmol·m−2·d−1 and (134.39 ± 62.41) mmol·m−2·d−1, respectively, while the mean CH4 fluxes were (1.013 ± 0.58) mmol·m−2·d−1 and (0.571 ± 0.70) mmol·m−2·d−1, respectively, indicating an overall “carbon source” characteristic. Through the evaluation of the characteristic importance of environmental factors, it was found that the main controlling factors of CO2 flux during the drainage period were total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll a (Chl_a), while total nitrogen (TN) was the main controlling factor during the impoundment period. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was the main controlling factor of CH4 flux during the different periods. Based on these findings, a “source-sink” mechanism of CO2 and CH4 in the Three Gorges Reservoir water under reservoir regulation was proposed. This study is of great significance for revealing the impact of reservoir construction on global ecosystem carbon cycling and providing scientific support for formulating “emission reduction and carbon sequestration” plans and achieving “dual carbon” goals.
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(This article belongs to the Section Water and Climate Change)
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Open AccessArticle
Experimental Study on the Hydraulic Performance of the Horizontal Main Drain of Building Drainage Systems Affected by Surfactants Sodium Dodecyl Benzene Sulfonate and Alkyl Ethoxylate-9
by
Shengjie Hu, Ping Xu and Bin Fu
Water 2024, 16(12), 1641; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121641 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Surfactants play a pivotal role in daily life owing to their commendable performance. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic notably escalated surfactant usage. Upon entering building drainage systems with wastewater, surfactants profoundly influence hydraulic performance, an aspect that has garnered limited scholarly attention.
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Surfactants play a pivotal role in daily life owing to their commendable performance. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic notably escalated surfactant usage. Upon entering building drainage systems with wastewater, surfactants profoundly influence hydraulic performance, an aspect that has garnered limited scholarly attention. This study employs an equally proportioned drainage test device to meticulously examine the variances in physical properties between surfactants, such as sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS) and alkyl ethoxylate-9 (AEO-9), and their repercussions on the hydraulic dynamics of building drainage horizontal main drains. Our findings reveal that the introduction of surfactants leads to the following: (1) an augmentation in water velocity and deposition distances of the solid simulant in the building drainage horizontal main drain with concentrations exacerbating this effect. The deposition distance of the solid simulation surged by up to 527% under experimental conditions compared to no surfactant; (2) there was a suppression of hydraulic jump and full degree of the horizontal main drain, with the concentration amplifying this suppression; and (3) an exacerbation of positive pressure in the horizontal main drain was found with increasing concentration, reaching a staggering 235.3% elevation compared to no surfactant. Moreover, SBDS foam outperformed AEO-9, demonstrating a 17.70–36.04% higher positive pressure in the horizontal main pipes. SBDS exhibits lower starting and ultimate viscosity, along with smaller colloid particle sizes, resulting in a 0.9–2.0% reduction in hydraulic jump and full degree. However, its inferior drag-reduction capability leads to a 17.48–36.44% decrease in the final deposition distances of solid simulant in the building drainage horizontal main drain compared to AEO-9.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics in Fluid Machinery)
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Open AccessReview
An Extensive Analysis of Combined Processes for Landfill Leachate Treatment
by
Ahmad Jamrah, Tharaa M. AL-Zghoul and Zakaria Al-Qodah
Water 2024, 16(12), 1640; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121640 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Sanitary landfilling is the predominant process for solid urban waste disposal, but it generates leachate that poses environmental, economic, and social concerns. Landfill leachate (LL) contains complex and refractory pollutants and toxic compounds that can vary depending on landfill maturity, age, and biochemical
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Sanitary landfilling is the predominant process for solid urban waste disposal, but it generates leachate that poses environmental, economic, and social concerns. Landfill leachate (LL) contains complex and refractory pollutants and toxic compounds that can vary depending on landfill maturity, age, and biochemical reactions, making its treatment challenging. Due to its unique characteristics and occurrence in remote locations, LL requires separate treatment from wastewater. Various conventional treatment processes involving biological, chemical, and physical processes have been used for LL treatment, but a single treatment process is insufficient to meet environmental standards. This review demonstrates that combined treatment processes are more effective and efficient for LL treatment compared to single processes. Among the various combinations, chemical–chemical and chemical–biological treatments are the most commonly used. Specifically, the integration of Fenton with adsorption and a membrane bioreactor (MBR) with nanofiltration (NF) processes shows promising results. The combined processes of MBR with NF, Fenton with adsorption, and PF with biological treatment show maximum removal efficiencies for COD, reaching 99 ± 1%, 99%, 98%, and 97%, respectively. Additionally, the combined Fenton with adsorption process and EC with SPF process enhance biodegradability as indicated by increased BOD5/COD ratios, from 0.084 to 0.82 and 0.35 to 0.75, respectively. The findings emphasize the importance of developing and implementing enhanced combined treatment processes for LL, with the aim of achieving efficient and comprehensive pollutant mineralization. Such processes have the potential to address the environmental concerns associated with LL and contribute to sustainable waste management practices.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water, Wastewater and Waste Management for Sustainable Development)
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Open AccessReview
Recent Advances in Ball-Milled Materials and Their Applications for Adsorptive Removal of Aqueous Pollutants
by
Pei Gao, Xuanhao Fan, Da Sun, Guoming Zeng, Quanfeng Wang and Qihui Wang
Water 2024, 16(12), 1639; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121639 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Ball milling, as a cost-effective and eco-friendly approach, has been popular in materials synthesis to solve problems involving toxic reagents, high temperatures, or high pressure, which has the potential for large-scale production. However, there are few reviews specifically concentrating on the latest progress
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Ball milling, as a cost-effective and eco-friendly approach, has been popular in materials synthesis to solve problems involving toxic reagents, high temperatures, or high pressure, which has the potential for large-scale production. However, there are few reviews specifically concentrating on the latest progress in materials characteristics before and after ball milling as well as the adsorptive application for aqueous pollutants. Hence, this paper summarized the principle and classification of ball milling and reviewed the advances of mechanochemical materials in categories as well as their adsorption performance of organic and inorganic pollutants. Ball milling has the capacity to change materials’ crystal structure, specific surface areas, pore volumes, and particle sizes and even promote grafting reactions to obtain functional groups to surfaces. This improved the adsorption amount, changed the equilibrium time, and strengthened the adsorption force for contaminants. Most studies showed that the Langmuir model and pseudo-second-order model fitted experimental data well. The regeneration methods include ball milling and thermal and solvent methods. The potential future developments in this field were also proposed. This work tries to review the latest advances in ball-milled materials and their application for pollutant adsorption and provides a comprehensive understanding of the physicochemical properties of materials before and after ball milling, as well as their effects on pollutants’ adsorption behavior. This is conducive to laying a foundation for further research on water decontamination by ball-milled materials.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Technologies for Water Purification)
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Dynamic Hazard Assessment of Rainfall-Induced Landslides Using Gradient Boosting Decision Tree with Google Earth Engine in Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China
by
Ke Yang, Ruiqing Niu, Yingxu Song, Jiahui Dong, Huaidan Zhang and Jie Chen
Water 2024, 16(12), 1638; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121638 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Rainfall-induced landslides are a major hazard in the Three Gorges Reservoir area (TGRA) of China, encompassing 19 districts and counties with extensive coverage and significant spatial variation in terrain. This study introduces the Gradient Boosting Decision Tree (GBDT) model, implemented on the Google
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Rainfall-induced landslides are a major hazard in the Three Gorges Reservoir area (TGRA) of China, encompassing 19 districts and counties with extensive coverage and significant spatial variation in terrain. This study introduces the Gradient Boosting Decision Tree (GBDT) model, implemented on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud platform, to dynamically assess landslide risks within the TGRA. Utilizing the GBDT model for landslide susceptibility analysis, the results show high accuracy with a prediction precision of 86.2% and a recall rate of 95.7%. Furthermore, leveraging GEE’s powerful computational capabilities and real-time updated rainfall data, we dynamically mapped landslide hazards across the TGRA. The integration of the GBDT with GEE enabled near-real-time processing of remote sensing and meteorological radar data from the significant “8–31” 2014 rainstorm event, achieving dynamic and accurate hazard assessments. This study provides a scalable solution applicable globally to similar regions, making a significant contribution to the field of geohazard analysis by improving real-time landslide hazard assessment and mitigation strategies.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rainfall-Induced Landslides: Influencing, Modelling and Hazard Assessment)
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Open AccessArticle
Employing Tank Constraints to Present Total Cost and Water Age Trade-Offs in Optimal Operation of Water Distribution Systems
by
Tomer Shmaya and Avi Ostfeld
Water 2024, 16(12), 1637; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121637 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Water distribution systems (WDSs) are massive infrastructure systems designed to supply water from sources to consumers. The optimal operation problem of WDSs is the problem of determining pump and tank operation to meet the consumers’ demands with minimal operating cost, under different constraints,
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Water distribution systems (WDSs) are massive infrastructure systems designed to supply water from sources to consumers. The optimal operation problem of WDSs is the problem of determining pump and tank operation to meet the consumers’ demands with minimal operating cost, under different constraints, which often include hydraulic feasibility, pressure boundaries, and water quality standards. The water quality aspect of WDSs’ operation poses significant challenges due to its complex mathematical nature. Determined by mixing in the systems’ nodes, it is affected by flow directions, which are subject to change based on the hydraulic state of the system and are therefore difficult to either predict, control, or be included in an analytical model used for optimization. Water age, which is defined as the time water travels in the system until reaching the consumer, is often used as a general water quality indicator—high values of water age imply low water quality, whereas low values of water age usually mean fresher, cleaner, and safer water. In this work, we present the effects that tank operation has on water age. As tanks contain large amounts of water for long periods of time, water tends to age there significantly, which translates into older water being supplied to consumers. By constraining the tank operation, we aim to present the trade-off between water age, tank operation, and operational cost in the WDS optimal operation problem and provide an operational tool that could assist system operators to decide how to operate their system, based on their budget and desired water age boundary. The analysis is applied to three case studies that vary in size and complexity, using MATLAB version R2021b and EPANET 2.2. The presented results show an ability to mitigate high water age in water networks through tank constraints, which varies in accordance with the system’s complexity and tank dominance in supply. The importance of a visual tool that serves as a guide for operators to tackle the complex problem of controlling water age is demonstrated as well.
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(This article belongs to the Section Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance)
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Open AccessArticle
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes for the Investigation of Water Movement in Bioretention Column Experiments
by
Yifan Yang, Xiang Zhang, Chao Wang, Lei Chen, Jinhan Cai and Jingyi Wang
Water 2024, 16(12), 1636; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16121636 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Bioretention can be an efficient measure of stormwater treatment. The bioretention system has been globally adapted for controlling rainfall-runoff volume and removing pollutants. However, there is a lack of systematic analysis of some hydrological processes in the bioretention facility, such as the transportation
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Bioretention can be an efficient measure of stormwater treatment. The bioretention system has been globally adapted for controlling rainfall-runoff volume and removing pollutants. However, there is a lack of systematic analysis of some hydrological processes in the bioretention facility, such as the transportation of rainfall-runoff (event water) and soil water (pre-event water). This research uniquely applied stable isotope tracing to a bioretention system to investigate the transport of rainfall-runoff and the movement of soil water in a bioretention column. The stable isotope tracing method is helpful for determining the transport process of water and is expected to enhance our understanding of bioretention systems. The ratio of the event rainfall-runoff and the pre-event soil water in the bottom outflow of bioretention columns was calculated by the stable isotope bivariate mixing model based on the oxygen and hydrogen stable isotopic data from continuous testing in the discharge of bioretention column. The time-varying proportion of event water and pre-event water in the hydrographic curve reveals that the outflow process of soil water is divided into three stages. In the early stage, all the outflow was soil water, accounting for about 6–13% of the total outflow. In the middle stage, the proportion of soil water rapidly decreased from 100% to 20% within a few minutes. In the later stage, the soil water proportion decreased slowly from 20% to 0%. The outflow of soil water accounted for more than 36% of the total outflow and decreased with the extension of the drought period. Soil water is a critical part of the bottom outflow of bioretention columns, and the influence of soil water on the hydrological effect of bioretention columns cannot be ignored.
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(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)
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Open AccessArticle
Numerical Investigation of Different Stepped Spillway Geometries over a Mild Slope for Safe Operation Using Multi-Phase Model
by
Binaya Raj Pandey, Megh Raj K C, Brian Crookston and Gerald Zenz
Water 2024, 16(11), 1635; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111635 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
The appropriate design and operation of spillways are critical for dam safety. To enhance design practices and gain insights into flow hydraulics, both experimental and numerical modeling are commonly employed. In this study, we conducted a numerical investigation of flow over a mildly
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The appropriate design and operation of spillways are critical for dam safety. To enhance design practices and gain insights into flow hydraulics, both experimental and numerical modeling are commonly employed. In this study, we conducted a numerical investigation of flow over a mildly sloping (1V:3H) stepped spillway with various step geometries using a multi-phase mixture model with dispersed interface tracking in ANSYS Fluent. The model was validated against experimental data from Utah State University, focusing on water surface profiles over the crest, velocities, and air concentrations. The validated numerical model was used to simulate flow over different step geometries (i.e., 0.2 m H uniform Step, 0.1 m H uniform step, non-uniform steps, adverse slope steps, and stepped pool) for a range of discharges from 0.285 m3/s/m to 1.265 m3/s/m. While flow depths over the crest and velocities in the chute compared well with experimental results, air concentrations exhibited some deviation, indicating numerical limitations of the solver. The shift in the location of the inception point was found to be mainly influenced by a higher flow rate than the different design configurations over an identical mild slope. The downstream non-linear flow velocity curve with different flow rates indicated less effectiveness of the step roughness over a high flow rate as a result of the reduction in relative roughness. The theoretical velocity ratio indicated the least reduction in downstream velocity with the stepped pooled spillway due to the formation of a “stagnant pool”. A higher negative-pressure region due to flow separation at the vertical face of the steps was obtained by adverse slope steps, which shows that the risk of cavitation is higher over the adverse slope step spillway. Turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) was found to be higher for uniform 0.2 m H steps due to the strong mixing of flow over the steps. The least TKE was found at the steps of the stepped pool spillway due to the formation of a “stagnant pool”. Uniform 0.2 m H steps achieved the maximum energy dissipation efficiency, whereas the stepped pool spillway obtained the least energy dissipation efficiency, introducing higher flow velocity at the stilling basin with a higher residual head. The adverse slope and non-uniform steps were found to be more effective than the uniform 0.1 m H steps and stepped pool spillway. The application of uniform steps of higher drop height and length could achieve higher TKE over the steps, reducing the directional flow velocity, which reduces the risk of potential damage.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue CFD Modelling of Turbulent Free Surface Flows)
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Study on the Impact of Closed Coal Mines on Groundwater in the Panlong River Basin (Shangdong Province, China) Based on Sulfur and Oxygen Isotopes
by
Hao Chen, Hongnian Chen, Feng Zhang, Zhantao Han, Huijian Shi, Jia Meng, Qiyan Feng and Di Chen
Water 2024, 16(11), 1634; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111634 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
To deeply investigate the impact of closed coal mines on groundwater sulfate contamination in the Panlong River basin, Zaozhuang, Shandong Province, China, the hydrochemical characteristics and controlling factors of groundwater were analyzed based on 64 surface water and groundwater samples. The sources of
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To deeply investigate the impact of closed coal mines on groundwater sulfate contamination in the Panlong River basin, Zaozhuang, Shandong Province, China, the hydrochemical characteristics and controlling factors of groundwater were analyzed based on 64 surface water and groundwater samples. The sources of sulfate contamination were identified by sulfur and oxygen isotope analysis. The results indicate that the sulfate content in the pore groundwater exceeds the Standard for Groundwater Quality (China) Category III (250 mg/L), with a maximum content of 666.2 mg/L. Specifically, the exceedance rate of sulfate in pore water near the western boundary of the Taozao coal field is directly related to mine water. The exceedance rate of sulfate in karst groundwater is 28%, peaking at 1131 mg/L, and is mainly distributed outside the western boundary of the Taozao coalfield and near the Dingzhuang water source in the southeast of the coalfield, indicating a significant influence from high-sulfate mine water in the coal-bearing strata. The sulfur and oxygen isotope differences are significant between surface water, mine water, karst water, and pore water. Through Bayesian end-member analysis, it was determined that 40–83% of sulfate in the downstream pore water of the Taozao coal field originated from mine water, while 48–86% of the sulfate in the karst water originated from mine water, which greatly affects the groundwater in the western and southeastern parts of the Taozao coalfield. Therefore, measures should be taken as soon as possible to control the risk of sulfate pollution of neighboring groundwater, especially karst groundwater, by mine water from closed coal mines.
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(This article belongs to the Section Hydrogeology)
Open AccessArticle
Development of a Lightweight Floating Object Detection Algorithm
by
Rundong Xian, Lijun Tang and Shenbo Liu
Water 2024, 16(11), 1633; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111633 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
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YOLOv5 is currently one of the mainstream algorithms for object detection. In this paper, we propose the FRL-YOLO model specifically for river floating object detection. The algorithm integrates the Fasternet block into the C3 module, conducting convolutions only on a subset of input
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YOLOv5 is currently one of the mainstream algorithms for object detection. In this paper, we propose the FRL-YOLO model specifically for river floating object detection. The algorithm integrates the Fasternet block into the C3 module, conducting convolutions only on a subset of input channels to reduce computational load. Simultaneously, it effectively captures spatial features, incorporates reparameterization techniques into the feature extraction network, and introduces the RepConv design to enhance model training efficiency. To further optimize network performance, the ACON-C activation function is employed. Finally, by employing a structured non-destructive pruning approach, redundant channels in the model are trimmed, significantly reducing the model’s volume. Experimental results indicate that the algorithm achieves an average precision value (mAP) of 79.3%, a 0.4% improvement compared to yolov5s. The detection speed on the NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4070 graphics card reaches 623.5 fps/s, a 22.8% increase over yolov5s. The improved model is compressed to a volume of 2 MB, representing only 14.7% of yolov5s.
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